Ancient Roman Papyrus Discovered in Judean Desert Reveals Legal Intrigue

A newly reexamined Roman-era papyrus discovered in the Judean Desert has provided scholars with a rare glimpse into the legal and administrative workings of the Roman Empire. The document, detailing a spectacular case of forgery and tax fraud, sheds light on Roman trial preparations and governance in Judea on the eve of the Bar Kochba revolt (132–136 CE).

Initially misclassified as Nabataean, the Greek-language papyrus remained unnoticed for decades in the Israel Antiquities Authority’s collection until it was rediscovered in 2014 by Professor Hannah Cotton-Paltiel of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Upon realizing its significance, she famously exclaimed, “It’s Greek to me!” In recognition of her role, the papyrus has been named P. Cotton, following papyrological tradition.

With over 133 lines of text, this is the longest papyrus ever found in the Judean Desert. It contains notes from Roman prosecutors preparing for a trial, along with a draft transcript of the hearing, offering a rare and valuable window into Roman judicial practices.

The trial centers around two defendants, Gadalias and Saulos, accused of tax evasion and document forgery. Gadalias, believed to be the son of a notary and possibly a Roman citizen, had a history of counterfeiting, extortion, and incitement. His accomplice, Saulos, conducted fraudulent transactions involving the sale and manumission of slaves.

According to Dr. Avner Eckner of Hebrew University, their activities may have either been a scheme to evade Roman taxes or an effort to fulfill a Biblical duty to redeem enslaved Jews. Dr. Anna Dolganov of the Austrian Academy of Sciences explained that forgery and tax fraud carried severe penalties under Roman law, including hard labor or even execution.

The historical timing of this case is particularly significant. It occurred between two major Jewish revolts the Jewish Diaspora revolt (115–117 CE) and the Bar Kochba revolt (132–136 CE) and took place during Emperor Hadrian’s visit to the region in 129–130 CE.

One of the key figures mentioned in the papyrus is Tineius Rufus, the Roman governor of Judea at the time of the Bar Kochba revolt. His involvement suggests that Roman authorities viewed the case as a potential security threat.

“Whether these men were truly involved in rebellion remains uncertain,” said Dolganov. “But the suspicion alone speaks to the highly charged atmosphere of the time.”

Beyond the political intrigue, the papyrus reveals new details about Roman governance in the Greek-speaking eastern empire. It confirms that Roman governors traveled their provinces on judicial tours and enforced compulsory jury service, a practice previously known only from Egypt.

Professor Fritz Mitthof of the University of Vienna remarked, “This document demonstrates that core Roman legal institutions extended throughout the empire, even to its distant provinces.”

The final fate of the defendants remains unknown, as the Bar Kochba revolt may have interrupted the trial. The papyrus was likely hidden in a cave in the Judean Desert, where it remained undisturbed for nearly 2,000 years.

This discovery further cements Israel’s historical significance as a crossroads of ancient civilizations, where Roman law, Jewish resistance, and imperial politics intersected.

For more groundbreaking historical discoveries, share this article or subscribe to our newsletter.